Difference between Apomixis and Parthenogenesis

Difference between Apomixis and Parthenogenesis: Concepts, Similarities, Differences

Edited By Irshad Anwar | Updated on Jul 02, 2025 07:10 PM IST

Apomixis and parthenogenesis are two types of asexual reproduction but are carried out in different organisms through dissimilar processes. Apomixis occurs in plants, with seeds being formed without fertilisation. It is useful in the generation of offspring that is a true replica of the parent plant, thus maintaining characteristics such as disease resistance or high yield unchanged. Apomixis has an important role to play in agriculture as it helps farmers to preserve hybrid vigour without the requirement of repeated crossing.

This Story also Contains

Definition Of Parthenogenesis And Apomixis
Apomixis
Types Of Apomixis
Significance Of Apomixis In Agriculture
Parthenogenesis
Types Of Parthenogenesis
Significance Of Parthenogenesis In Nature
Key Differences Between Apomixis And Parthenogenesis
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Difference between Apomixis and Parthenogenesis: Concepts, Similarities, Differences

Parthenogenesis, however, occurs in animals, where an egg matures into a new organism without fertilisation by a male gamete. It occurs in some insects, reptiles, and amphibians. Parthenogenesis is the way nature helps species survive without mates. Although both processes bypass fertilisation, apomixis yields seeds in plants, while parthenogenesis yields fully formed animals from the egg.

Definition Of Parthenogenesis And Apomixis

Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction wherein an egg matures into a new organism without being fertilised by a male gamete. Parthenogenesis occurs in certain animals such as bees, lizards, and certain insects. Offspring resulting from parthenogenesis typically have the same genetic makeup as the mother.

Apomixis is a unique method of plant reproduction where seeds are produced without the process of fertilisation. It implies that new plants develop without the union of the male and female gametes. It occurs in plants such as mango, grasses, and citrus, where it helps in the development of plants that are clones of the parent plant.

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Apomixis

Apomixis is a unique form of asexual reproduction in plants that involves the development of seeds without fertilisation. In apomixis, the embryo is produced from cells such as the nucellus or integuments and not from the union of male and female gametes.

Apomixis contributes to the generation of new plants that are identical to the parent plant. It is applied in agriculture because it helps farmers to produce crops with desired characteristics, such as good yields or disease resistance, without the loss of these traits in the subsequent generation.

Types Of Apomixis

The different types are discussed below in the table:

Type	Description
Apospory	The embryo sac develops from somatic cells of the ovule, bypassing meiosis.
Diplospory	The embryo sac forms from a cell that undergoes modified meiosis, resulting in diploid cells that form seeds.
Adventive Embryony	Embryos develop from somatic or nucellar cells around the embryo sac, not from gametic cells.

Significance Of Apomixis In Agriculture

Apomixis is highly important in agriculture since it helps plants to generate seeds without fertilisation, which makes sure that the desirable characters of high-yielding and disease-resistant types are transmitted from generation to generation. It implies that farmers can obtain a uniform crop without having to purchase new seeds with every season. Apomixis can make farming more efficient and dependable, particularly in crops that utilise hybrid seeds.

It helps in retaining hybrid over a number of generations.
Farmers are able to store seeds without losing quality in the subsequent crop.
It helps in minimising the cost of purchasing fresh hybrid seeds annually.
Plants produced through apomixis exhibit uniform characters.
Apomixis helps in yielding disease-free plants.
It helps in accelerating breeding programmes.
Helps in minimising reliance on cross-pollination.
Beneficial for creating crops adapted to challenging environments.

Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is a common natural asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete organism without fertilisation by a male. It occurs in some animals, such as some insects, reptiles, and amphibians. Parthenogenesis helps these animals to reproduce rapidly when they have no mates, so that their population remains stable or even increases. The offspring are genetically close to the mother, which makes sure that successful characteristics remain stable throughout generations.

Types Of Parthenogenesis

The types of parthenogenesis are discussed below in the table:

Type	Description
Natural Parthenogenesis	A natural process in the reproductive cycle of some species, especially reptiles and amphibians.
Artificial Parthenogenesis	Induced in the laboratory using chemicals or physical methods to study developmental processes.

Significance Of Parthenogenesis In Nature

Parthenogenesis is essential as it helps some animals to reproduce without fertilisation. This process is beneficial if it is hard to find a mate, such as in remote environments. It helps species such as some insects, lizards, and birds to reproduce and sustain their population even when conditions are poor. Parthenogenesis helps the continuation of species without the involvement of male gametes.

It helps species to survive where mates are few.
Permits rapid growth in population size.
Young ones are genetically close to the mother, maintaining good qualities intact.
Beneficial in colonising new or isolated environments.
Saves energy for searching for mates.
Observed in both natural and emergency (stressful) conditions in the wild.
Helps in reproduction in unfavourable conditions.
Helps in maintaining the stability of the ecosystem by stabilising populations.

Key Differences Between Apomixis And Parthenogenesis

Apomixis and parthenogenesis are both forms of asexual reproduction, but occur in other groups with important differences. Apomixis occurs in plants, where seeds develop without the process of fertilisation, while parthenogenesis occurs in animals, where an egg grows into a new individual without male and female gamete fusion.

Both contribute to the production of offspring without mating, but their processes and organisms are not alike. Some of the major differences are discussed below in the table:

Aspect	Parthenogenesis	Apomixis
Definition	Asexual reproduction, where an egg develops without fertilisation	Reproduction involving the combination of genetic material from two parents
Occurrence	Common in some insects, reptiles, amphibians, and plants	Universal among animals, plants, and many other organisms
Types	Natural and Artificial	Various (e.g., internal and external fertilisation)
Mechanism	The egg develops into an individual without fertilisation	Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote
Genetic Variation	Low genetic variation	High genetic variation due to recombination
Significance	Allows reproduction without a mate, quick population growth	Promotes genetic diversity and adaptability to changing environments
Examples	Bees, aphids, dandelions, sand ome reptiles	Most animals, flowering plants, fungi
Reproductive Strategies	Typically involves a single parent	Involves two parents with different gametes

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is the main difference between apomixis and parthenogenesis?

The main difference between apomixis and parthenogenesis lies in the fact that, in the former, seeds are formed in plants without fertilisation as a form of asexual reproduction, bypassing the meiosis and fertilisation stages in the development of seeds, while the new individual expresses exactly the genotype of its parent.

On the other hand, parthenogenesis is an asexual reproductive process in both animals and plants whereby an egg develops into an individual without being fertilised. Although parthenogenesis does not involve fertilisation, it frequently still involves meiosis.

2. Can parthenogenesis occur in mammals?

Parthenogenesis is virtually nonexistent in mammals and is never spontaneous. Sexual reproduction appears to be a requirement for any mammal to give rise to viable young. However, researchers have been able to artificially induce parthenogenesis in mammalian eggs. The embryos produced typically die or fail to develop properly.

3. Can parthenogenesis occur in mammals?

Natural parthenogenesis has not been observed in mammals. However, scientists have induced parthenogenesis in mammalian eggs in laboratory settings, though the resulting embryos do not develop to term.

4. What are the benefits of apomixis in agriculture?

One of the clear benefits of apomixis in agriculture is in the generation of inbred but uniform and stable cultivars with predictable and beneficial features, thus ensuring consistency in crop quality. This process also allows for the maintenance of hybrid vigour without the continuous hybridisation necessary in conventional breeding techniques, which reduces the cost and effort involved.

5. How does artificial parthenogenesis work?

Artificial parthenogenesis: an egg is induced to develop into an embryo without fertilisation, say, by chemical, electrical, or mechanical means. This could involve treatments with calcium ionophores, temperature shocks, or other kinds of physical and chemical agents that can be used to pretend the activation normally brought about by sperm entry.

6. What plants exhibit apomixis?

Plants that undergo apomixis include some dandelions and hawkweeds, and some grasses. The former plants can form seeds parthenogenically without the occurrence of fertilisation, hence allowing asexual reproduction with the perpetuation of their genotype.

7. What is apomixis?

Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction in plants where seeds are produced without fertilization. The offspring are genetically identical to the parent plant, essentially creating clones.

8. Do all plants reproduce through apomixis?

No, not all plants reproduce through apomixis. It is found in certain plant species and is often an alternative to sexual reproduction.

9. How does apomixis benefit plants?

Apomixis allows plants to produce offspring without the need for pollination or fertilization, which can be advantageous in environments where pollinators are scarce or conditions are unfavorable for sexual reproduction.

10. What are the different types of apomixis?

There are three main types of apomixis: diplospory (where the embryo develops from an unreduced egg cell), apospory (where the embryo develops from a somatic cell), and adventitious embryony (where the embryo develops from other tissues like the nucellus).

11. How does apomixis affect genetic diversity in plant populations?

Apomixis can reduce genetic diversity in plant populations because it produces clones of the parent plant. This lack of genetic variation can make populations more vulnerable to environmental changes or diseases.

12. What is facultative parthenogenesis?

Facultative parthenogenesis is when an organism can reproduce both sexually and through parthenogenesis, often switching between the two modes depending on environmental conditions or the availability of mates.

13. How does apomixis impact plant breeding and agriculture?

Apomixis is of great interest in plant breeding as it could allow for the production of hybrid crops that maintain their desirable traits over generations without the need for repeated crossing.

14. How does apomixis differ from vegetative reproduction in plants?

While both are forms of asexual reproduction, apomixis involves the production of seeds without fertilization, whereas vegetative reproduction involves new plants growing from vegetative parts like stems or roots.

15. How does apomixis affect the concept of species in plants?

Apomixis can complicate the concept of species in plants because it can lead to the formation of genetically uniform populations that may be morphologically distinct but closely related to sexual species.

16. Can parthenogenetic animals produce offspring with genetic diversity?

While parthenogenesis typically produces genetically identical offspring, some forms of parthenogenesis, like automixis, can introduce limited genetic diversity through processes like crossing over or fusion of egg nuclei.

17. How does parthenogenesis differ from apomixis?

Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in animals where unfertilized eggs develop into new individuals. Unlike apomixis, which occurs in plants, parthenogenesis happens in animals and can sometimes involve slight genetic variations.

18. Can apomixis occur in animals?

No, apomixis is specific to plants. The equivalent process in animals is called parthenogenesis.

19. Are offspring produced through apomixis genetically identical to the parent?

Yes, offspring produced through apomixis are genetically identical to the parent plant, as they develop from unfertilized eggs or other cells without genetic recombination.

20. What is the main similarity between apomixis and parthenogenesis?

The main similarity is that both are forms of asexual reproduction where offspring are produced from unfertilized eggs or cells, without the need for genetic contribution from two parents.

21. Can parthenogenesis produce both male and female offspring?

In most cases, parthenogenesis produces only female offspring. However, in some species, it can produce males through various mechanisms.

22. What are some examples of animals that can reproduce through parthenogenesis?

Some examples include certain species of lizards, sharks, insects (like aphids), and some fish. Komodo dragons are a well-known example of animals capable of parthenogenesis.

23. Can humans reproduce through parthenogenesis?

No, humans cannot reproduce through parthenogenesis. It is not a natural reproductive method in mammals, including humans.

24. What triggers parthenogenesis in animals?

Parthenogenesis can be triggered by various factors depending on the species, including environmental stress, lack of males, or specific chemical or physical stimuli.

25. Is parthenogenesis always a natural process?

While parthenogenesis occurs naturally in many species, it can also be artificially induced in some animals through various laboratory techniques.

26. How does parthenogenesis affect the evolution of species?

Parthenogenesis can slow down the rate of evolution in a species because it reduces genetic variation. However, it can also allow for rapid population growth and colonization of new habitats.

27. Can apomictic plants still reproduce sexually?

Yes, many apomictic plants retain the ability to reproduce sexually. Some plants can switch between sexual and apomictic reproduction depending on environmental conditions.

28. How do scientists study apomixis in plants?

Scientists study apomixis through various methods including genetic analysis, microscopy to observe embryo development, and breeding experiments to track inheritance patterns.

29. What are the ecological implications of apomixis?

Apomixis can allow plants to rapidly colonize new areas and maintain populations in challenging environments. However, it can also lead to reduced genetic diversity, potentially making populations more vulnerable to environmental changes.

30. How does the ploidy level of offspring compare between apomixis and parthenogenesis?

In apomixis, offspring typically have the same ploidy level as the parent plant. In parthenogenesis, the ploidy level can vary depending on the specific mechanism, but offspring are often haploid or have reduced ploidy compared to the parent.

31. What role does meiosis play in apomixis?

In some forms of apomixis, like diplospory, meiosis is modified or interrupted, resulting in unreduced gametes. In other forms, like apospory, meiosis is bypassed entirely.

32. Can parthenogenesis lead to the development of new species?

Yes, parthenogenesis can potentially lead to the development of new species, especially in cases where a parthenogenetic lineage becomes reproductively isolated from its sexual ancestors.

33. What are some advantages of parthenogenesis for animals?

Advantages include the ability to reproduce without a mate, rapid population growth, and the preservation of well-adapted genotypes in stable environments.

34. What is the difference between obligate and facultative apomixis?

Obligate apomixis refers to plants that reproduce exclusively through apomixis, while facultative apomixis occurs in plants that can reproduce both sexually and apomictically.

35. How does parthenogenesis affect sex determination in animals?

In many parthenogenetic species, all offspring are female. However, in some cases, environmental factors or specific genetic mechanisms can lead to the production of male offspring.

36. What are some challenges in studying apomixis?

Challenges include the complexity of the genetic mechanisms involved, the difficulty in identifying apomictic individuals in natural populations, and the variability of apomictic processes across different plant species.

37. How does apomixis impact plant evolution and speciation?

Apomixis can lead to rapid colonization of new habitats and the preservation of successful genotypes, but it can also slow down adaptive evolution due to reduced genetic recombination.

38. What is the relationship between polyploidy and apomixis in plants?

Apomixis is often associated with polyploidy in plants. Many apomictic species are polyploids, and polyploidy may facilitate the evolution of apomixis in some cases.

39. Can parthenogenesis be induced artificially in animals that don't naturally exhibit it?

Yes, parthenogenesis can be induced artificially in some animals through various techniques such as chemical treatments or physical stimulation of eggs.

40. How does apomixis affect plant breeding programs?

Apomixis is of great interest in plant breeding as it could allow for the fixation of hybrid vigor, potentially revolutionizing crop production by maintaining desirable traits across generations.

41. What are some ethical considerations surrounding the use of parthenogenesis in research?

Ethical considerations include concerns about creating embryos solely for research purposes, potential applications in human reproduction, and the welfare of animals produced through artificial parthenogenesis.

42. How does climate change potentially impact apomictic plant species?

Climate change could potentially favor apomictic species in some cases due to their ability to rapidly colonize new areas. However, their reduced genetic diversity might make them more vulnerable to extreme environmental changes.

43. What is the difference between apomixis and vegetative propagation in plants?

Apomixis involves the production of seeds without fertilization, while vegetative propagation involves the growth of new plants from vegetative parts like stems, roots, or leaves.

44. How does parthenogenesis affect the sex ratio in populations?

Parthenogenesis often leads to female-biased sex ratios in populations, as most parthenogenetic offspring are female. This can have significant ecological and evolutionary consequences.

45. What are some potential applications of apomixis in agriculture?

Potential applications include developing hybrid crops that maintain their traits over generations, creating uniform plant populations for specific agricultural purposes, and potentially increasing crop yields.

46. How does parthenogenesis impact the genetic health of a population over time?

While parthenogenesis can lead to rapid population growth, it can also result in reduced genetic diversity over time, potentially making populations more susceptible to diseases or environmental changes.

47. What role does epigenetics play in apomixis?

Epigenetic mechanisms are thought to play a crucial role in regulating apomixis, including the silencing or activation of genes involved in sexual reproduction and embryo development.

48. How does the energy cost of reproduction compare between sexual reproduction, apomixis, and parthenogenesis?

Generally, apomixis and parthenogenesis are considered less energy-intensive than sexual reproduction, as they don't require the production of male gametes or the process of fertilization.

49. Can apomixis occur in gymnosperms?

While apomixis is more common in angiosperms, it has been reported in some gymnosperms, although it is relatively rare in this group of plants.

50. How does parthenogenesis affect the concept of biological species in animals?

Parthenogenesis can complicate the biological species concept, which is based on reproductive isolation, as parthenogenetic lineages can evolve independently of their sexual counterparts.

51. What are some examples of economically important apomictic plant species?

Some economically important apomictic plants include certain varieties of citrus fruits, mangoes, and some forage grasses used in agriculture.

52. How does the genetic diversity of offspring compare between apomixis, parthenogenesis, and sexual reproduction?

Sexual reproduction typically produces the highest genetic diversity in offspring, while apomixis and most forms of parthenogenesis produce offspring with little to no genetic variation from the parent.

53. What are some current research directions in the study of apomixis?

Current research focuses on understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms of apomixis, developing methods to introduce apomixis into crop species, and studying the ecological and evolutionary impacts of apomixis.

54. How does parthenogenesis affect the rate of adaptation in changing environments?

Parthenogenesis can potentially slow down the rate of adaptation in changing environments due to reduced genetic variation. However, it can also allow for the rapid proliferation of well-adapted genotypes in stable environments.

55. What are the implications of apomixis and parthenogenesis for conservation biology?

Both apomixis and parthenogenesis can be double-edged swords in conservation. They can allow for rapid population growth and persistence in challenging environments, but the reduced genetic diversity can make populations more vulnerable to new threats or changes in their environment.