Provisions in the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

Edited By Ritika Jonwal | Updated on Jul 02, 2025 05:45 PM IST

The Citizenship Act of 1955 was amended by the Citizenship Amendment Bill (CAA Bill), which was first submitted in the Lok Sabha in 2016. A Joint Parliamentary Committee was tasked with reviewing this measure; the committee eventually turned in its findings on January 7, 2019. On January 8, 2019, the Lok Sabha enacted the Citizenship Amendment Bill, which expired on the same day that the 16th Lok Sabha was dissolved. Amit Shah, the Minister of Home Affairs, reintroduced this bill in the 17th Lok Sabha on December 9, 2019, and it was subsequently approved on December 10. On December 11, the Rajya Sabha also approved the measure. Parliament approves the 2019 Citizenship Amendment Bill.

This Story also Contains

What is Citizenship?
About Citizenship in India
Constitutional Provisions
Acquisition of Citizenship
Importance of Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019
Constitutionality of the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act
Characteristics of the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act
Non-Applicability of 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act
Criticism of the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act
Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) card
The Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)
Conclusion

Provisions in the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

The CAA was approved to offer Citizenship to illegal immigrants who arrived in India on or before December 31, 2014, despite their lack of documentation. The Act was enacted to accommodate immigrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan who practised six different religions, including Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Hindus. If a person has lived in India for 11 of the preceding 14 years and the last 12 months, they are eligible under this statute. The period of residence has been shortened from 11 to 5 years for the designated class of unauthorised immigrants.

What is Citizenship?

The relationship that exists between a nation and its citizens is defined by citizenship.
In exchange for the completion of specific tasks and obligations due by the person to the state, it bestows upon the individual certain rights, including protection from the state, the ability to vote, and the right to occupy certain public posts.

About Citizenship in India

India's Constitution guarantees all Indians a common citizenship.
Parliament may enact laws governing citizenship rights under Article 11 of the Indian Constitution. Consequently, the Citizenship Act of 1955 was approved by the Parliament of India to provide procedures for obtaining and determining Indian citizenship.
The Seventh Schedule's Entry 17, List 1 discusses aliens, naturalisation, and citizenship. As a result, Parliament alone has the authority to enact laws about citizenship.
Up until 1987, a person just needed to be born in India to be eligible for Indian citizenship.
Then, in response to populist movements that claimed Bangladesh was the source of large-scale illegal migration, citizenship rules were first changed to include an extra requirement that at least one parent be Indian.
The legislation was subsequently changed in 2004 to stipulate that both parents must be citizens of India and that neither parent may be an undocumented immigrant.

Constitutional Provisions

The clauses in Part II of the Constitution of India define the status of citizens in India at the time of the document's adoption.
The Indian Constitution addresses the notion of citizenship in Articles 5–11.
Part II came into effect on November 26, 1949, the day the Constitution was signed.
Since citizenship is a topic covered by the Union List and is included in the 7th schedule, the Indian Parliament is in charge of the issue.
This made it possible for the Indian Citizenship Act of 1955 to be passed.
Six amendments to the Indian Citizenship Act of 1955 have been made: in 1986, 1992, 2003, 2005, 2015, and 2019, among other years.
The process of obtaining citizenship by universal principles, like birth, has been limited by these revisions.

Acquisition of Citizenship

The Indian Citizenship Act of 1955 outlines the methods through which an individual can acquire Indian citizenship, including:

Citizenship by Birth	An individual can apply for Indian citizenship if they were born in India.
Citizenship by Descent	This is relevant to those who were born abroad but whose parents are from India.
Citizenship by Registration	This is relevant to those who are descended from Indians.
Citizenship through Naturalization	This is for those who have visited India regularly.
Citizenship through the Incorporation of Territory	This is for those who live in an area that the Indian government has incorporated.
Citizenship provision to people belonging to Assam Accord	Three categories of immigration were established by the Accord: individuals who arrived in Assam before January 1, 1966. These people were eligible to vote and were regarded as Indian citizens. Individuals who arrived in Assam after January 1, 1966, but before March 24, 1971.

The Act makes it clear that no person may be awarded dual citizenship under Indian law; it merely outlines the aforementioned methods of obtaining citizenship. The Act also gave foreign nationals access to specific sections about their rights, how to register their overseas citizen card, and how to revoke their card.

Importance of Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019

The government claims that minorities fleeing persecution in countries with a majority of Muslims were the reason behind the Act's introduction.
The Act's goal is to offer citizenship to undocumented immigrants and others who lack acceptable proof of residency. As long as they join the nation on or before December 31, 2014, illegal immigrants from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan are granted citizenship under the CAA 2019, which also reduces the qualifying time for Indian citizenship from 11 to 5 years.
This allows the migrants to become citizens without having to provide any paperwork. Therefore, as long as the aforementioned requirements are satisfied, the CAA will assist such migrants in easily obtaining citizenship.
Therefore, the CAA 2019 was passed to provide immigrants who have experienced religious persecution in these three surrounding countries with hassle-free citizenship.

Constitutionality of the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act

A significant question concerning the Act's legality was also brought up. These are:

A rule that only allowed illegal immigration based on religion violated both secularism and Article 14 of the Indian Constitution, which protects legal equality.
The 42nd Amendment, 1976, inserted the word "secular" into the Preamble of the Indian Constitution, stating unequivocally that all religions would be treated equally and that the State shall not be ruled by a single faith.
This implies that no policy will support any one faith. No additional religious minorities were taken into account in the CAA other than the six listed above.
An additional contention was made on Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution of India. Anyone can practise any religion they want thanks to the freedom of religion guaranteed by Articles 25 and 26.
However, since there is always a chance that they might be pressured to convert to a different religion to qualify for the relaxations provided by the CAA 2019, religious minorities from other groups won't be free to practise their faith.

Characteristics of the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act

The Indian Citizenship Act of 1955 forbids illegal immigrants from obtaining citizenship status. The primary aim of this Bill's adoption was to revise the previous legislation and bestow citizenship upon undocumented migrants who faced persecution in the bordering nations of India. Only followers of the following six religions could immigrate: Buddhists, Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, Parsis, Christians, and Afghanis.
The measure expressly stated that "those who fled due to religious persecution or had a fear of being persecuted" from Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, the surrounding states, would be included.
The law also had a few modifications. First off, starting on December 31, 2014, the deadline for citizenship was extended. If one entered India on or before the deadline, they could only apply for citizenship.
Additionally, the amendment shortened the period required for naturalisation for all members of the six minority religious groups from 11 to 5 years.
Under Section 7D of the bill, modifications for OCI (Overseas Citizens of India) holders were also proposed. If a foreign national's spouse or they are of Indian origin, they can apply for OCI. Additionally, OCI cardholders will be eligible for certain perks, including the ability to work and study throughout the nation.
According to Section 6B, Clauses 2 and 3 of the Act, these individuals will be considered Indian citizens as of the day of their admission into the country, and any legal actions taken against them regarding their citizenship or illegal migration will be dropped.

Non-Applicability of 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act

There are two significant exclusions included in the Act. That is:

1. First off, tribal regions like Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya would not be covered by the Act. The primary rationale for this exclusion is that these states are listed in the Indian Constitution's 6th Schedule.

2. Furthermore, the regions that are designated as Inner Limits of the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation Act, 1873, shall not be covered by the Act.

Criticism of the 2019 Citizenship (Amendment) Act

1. It opposes Muslims; The Act's primary objection has been that it singles out Muslims for discrimination. Consequently, the religious foundation of citizenship is incompatible not only with secularism but also with liberalism, equality, and justice. It forbids the application for citizenship of Hazaras in Afghanistan and Shia, Baloch, and Ahmadiyya Muslims in Pakistan who likewise endure persecution.

2. It is against Article 14: Critics claim that it violates the right to equality guaranteed by Article 14 of the Constitution. The CAA is in direct opposition to Article 14, which stipulates that for any classification to be legitimate, it must not only be based on a reasonable classification and have a just and reasonable objective but also that it must not be arbitrary. One critique of this Act is that it is an example of class law because it is illegal to classify people based only on their religion.

3. Legal technical flaws: A number of the CAA 2019's technical and legal flaws were also noted in the Joint Parliamentary Committee on the Citizenship Amendment Bill 2016 (JPC Report) for 2019. This article claimed that the CAA only named the six non-Muslim minorities and did not utilise the term "minority."

4. Discord in Assam: There has also been a lot of debate against the CAA and the Assam Discord. There has been a contention that the CAA contradicts the Assam Discord. First of all, it is now challenging to divide migrants into Muslim and non-Muslim categories and to change the year from 1974 to 2014. This is so that non-Muslim Bangladeshi immigrants who arrived in Assam after 1971 may also petition to become citizens of India.

5. Other problems: Another argument made was that Jews and atheists were not covered by the CAA. Additionally, nations that are known to have land borders with India—such as Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar—were left out. It's interesting to note that the "Statement of Objects and Reasons" gives the clear constitutional validity of a state religion as justification for this exclusion.

Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) card

A person is qualified for the PIO card if they:
If you are of Indian descent and a citizen of any nation except Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, or Afghanistan, or if you have previously carried an Indian passport, or if you are married to an Indian citizen or someone of Indian heritage.
PIO cardholders can enter India many times for a period of fifteen years. They don't require a separate visa.

The Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)

OCI Card is for overseas people who were eligible for Indian citizenship on January 26, 1950 or were Indian citizens on or after that date.
Citizens of Pakistan and Bangladesh are not eligible for an OCI Card. OCI cardholders do not have voting privileges.
OCI does not constitute dual citizenship. OCI cardholders are not Indian citizens.
The OCI Card is a multifunctional, multiple-entry, lifetime visa for visiting India.
OCI Card holders have the same financial, educational, and economic privileges as NRIs. However, they are unable to obtain agricultural land in India.

Conclusion

Undoubtedly, the nation was taken aback by the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, of 2019. Although the decision was well received in one group, it was strongly disapproved of and criticised in the other. Religious disagreements caused division in the nation once more. This Act created a rift between the Muslim and non-Muslim populations. Activists and students publicly protested against the Act, despite the government's best efforts to defend its passage. The people must always stand together and put pressure on the government to give the people's Fundamental Rights priority. At all times, the people must demand a secular, democratic government.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is the 2019 CAA notification?

A route to Indian citizenship is offered to migrants from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan who belong to the following six religious minorities: Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian. This legislation is known as the Citizenship by Acceptance Act of 2019.

2. Is the CAA 2019 in effect?

The President gave his assent to the Act on December 12, 2019, after it was enacted on December 11 of the same year. The Act's effective date is January 10, 2020, as announced earlier by the MHA.

3. What distinguishing qualities does the Citizenship Amendment Act of 2019 have?

According to the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, of 2019, some illegal immigrant groups may now be able to petition for Indian citizenship under the terms of the Citizenship Act, of 1955. Additionally, it suggests lowering the length of time that applicants must remain in India to become naturalised under the 1955 Act.

4. What is the 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act of the Supreme Court?

A flexible path to Indian citizenship is provided for non-Muslim migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, or Pakistan by the Citizenship (Amendment Act), 2019 (CAA), which replaces the Citizenship Act, of 1955. Notably, the Act prevents Muslim immigrants from pursuing the same citizenship process.

5. What advantages does CAA 2019 offer?

The Centre has published the guidelines for putting the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA) 2019 into effect ahead of the General Elections of 2024. Persecuted non-Muslim migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan who landed in India before December 31, 2014, are granted Indian nationality under the statute.

6. What are the potential long-term effects of the CAA 2019 on India's citizenship laws?

The CAA 2019 represents a significant shift in India's approach to citizenship. It may set a precedent for future amendments and could influence the overall trajectory of citizenship laws in India.

7. What are the implications of the CAA 2019 for India's policy towards stateless persons?

While the CAA 2019 addresses certain groups, it does not provide a comprehensive framework for addressing statelessness. This highlights the need for a more holistic approach to statelessness and citizenship in Indian law.

8. How does the CAA 2019 impact the interpretation of Article 11 of the Indian Constitution, which gives Parliament the power to regulate citizenship by law?

The CAA 2019 is an exercise of Parliament's power under Article 11. However, it has sparked debates about the extent and limits of this power, particularly when it intersects with fundamental rights and constitutional principles.

9. How does the CAA 2019 affect the concept of "burden of proof" in citizenship matters?

The CAA 2019 potentially shifts the burden of proof for certain groups by creating a presumption of eligibility for citizenship. This raises questions about how this shift might interact with other citizenship verification processes.

10. How does the CAA 2019 address the issue of statelessness?

While the CAA 2019 provides a pathway to citizenship for certain groups, it does not comprehensively address the issue of statelessness. Critics argue that it may exacerbate the problem for Muslim individuals who cannot prove their citizenship under potential future citizenship verification processes.

11. What are the implications of the CAA 2019 for stateless persons in India?

While the CAA 2019 provides a pathway to citizenship for certain groups, it does not comprehensively address the issue of statelessness. Some argue it may exacerbate the problem for individuals not covered by the Act who cannot prove their citizenship.

12. How does the CAA 2019 relate to India's historical approach to refugees and immigrants?

India has historically provided refuge to various groups fleeing persecution, including Tibetans, Sri Lankan Tamils, and Bangladeshis. The CAA 2019 marks a shift by codifying religion-based criteria for certain groups, which is a departure from previous ad hoc approaches.

13. What are the potential challenges in proving eligibility under the CAA 2019?

Proving eligibility may be challenging for many individuals, particularly in demonstrating their country of origin, religion, and date of entry into India. This could lead to issues of documentation and verification, especially for those who fled persecution without proper papers.

14. What is the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019?

The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 is a law that amends India's citizenship rules. It provides a pathway to Indian citizenship for certain religious minority groups from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan who entered India before December 31, 2014. The Act specifically mentions Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Christians from these countries.

15. How does the CAA 2019 change the criteria for citizenship in India?

The CAA 2019 reduces the residency requirement for citizenship by naturalization from 11 years to 5 years for individuals from the specified religious groups and countries. It also allows these groups to apply for citizenship even if they entered India without valid documents.

16. What is the cut-off date for eligibility under the CAA 2019?

The cut-off date for eligibility under the CAA 2019 is December 31, 2014. Individuals from the specified religious groups must have entered India before this date to be eligible for the expedited citizenship process.

17. How does the CAA 2019 define "illegal migrants"?

The CAA 2019 amends the definition of "illegal migrants" in the Citizenship Act, 1955. It exempts certain religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan from being considered illegal migrants if they entered India before December 31, 2014.

18. Does the CAA 2019 automatically grant citizenship to all non-Muslim immigrants from the specified countries?

No, the CAA 2019 does not automatically grant citizenship. It provides an expedited pathway to citizenship for eligible individuals, but they must still apply and meet other criteria set by the government.

19. How does the CAA 2019 impact the right to equality before the law?

Critics argue that by creating different citizenship criteria based on religion, the CAA 2019 violates the constitutional principle of equality before the law. Supporters contend that the Act addresses specific historical circumstances and does not apply to Indian citizens.

20. How does the CAA 2019 relate to the concept of "reasonable classification" under Article 14 of the Indian Constitution?

Supporters argue that the CAA 2019 creates a "reasonable classification" based on specific historical and geopolitical circumstances. Critics contend that the classification based on religion is arbitrary and violates the principle of equality.

21. What are the potential impacts of the CAA 2019 on India's federal structure?

The implementation of the CAA 2019 has led to tensions between the central government and some state governments, highlighting issues of federalism and the division of powers in matters related to citizenship and immigration.

22. How does the CAA 2019 relate to the concept of "natural justice" in law?

The principle of natural justice includes the right to a fair hearing and the rule against bias. Some argue that the CAA 2019 violates these principles by creating a bias based on religion in citizenship matters.

23. What is the significance of including specific religious groups in the text of the CAA 2019?

The explicit mention of specific religious groups (Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Christians) in the Act is unprecedented in Indian citizenship law. This has led to debates about the Act's compatibility with India's secular constitution.

24. Can the CAA 2019 be challenged in court?

Yes, the CAA 2019 can be challenged in court. Several petitions challenging its constitutional validity have been filed in the Supreme Court of India, arguing that it violates the right to equality under Article 14 of the Indian Constitution.

25. How does the CAA 2019 interact with existing anti-discrimination laws in India?

The CAA 2019 has raised questions about its compatibility with anti-discrimination provisions in the Indian Constitution, particularly Article 14 (right to equality) and Article 15 (prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth).

26. How does the CAA 2019 affect the principle of secularism in the Indian Constitution?

Critics argue that by providing citizenship based on religious criteria, the CAA 2019 violates the principle of secularism enshrined in the Indian Constitution. Supporters contend that it does not affect the secular nature of the state as it deals with foreign nationals, not Indian citizens.

27. How does the CAA 2019 affect the concept of "illegal migrants" in Indian law?

The CAA 2019 creates an exception to the definition of "illegal migrants" for certain religious groups from specified countries. This changes the legal status of these individuals, potentially allowing them to apply for citizenship despite entering India without proper documentation.

28. What is the role of state governments in implementing the CAA 2019?

While citizenship is a central subject under the Indian Constitution, state governments play a crucial role in the implementation of the Act. Some states have expressed opposition to implementing the CAA, leading to debates about federalism and state autonomy.

29. Why is the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 controversial?

The Act is controversial because it excludes Muslims and does not offer the same provisions to religious minorities from other neighboring countries. Critics argue that it violates the principle of secularism in the Indian Constitution and discriminates on the basis of religion.

30. How does the CAA 2019 relate to the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?

While the CAA and NRC are separate issues, critics argue that when implemented together, they could potentially lead to the disenfranchisement of Muslim citizens. The NRC aims to identify illegal immigrants, while the CAA provides a pathway to citizenship for certain non-Muslim immigrants.

31. What is the government's rationale for excluding Muslims from the CAA 2019?

The government argues that the Act aims to protect persecuted religious minorities from Muslim-majority countries. They contend that Muslims are not a minority in these countries and therefore do not face religious persecution.

32. How does the CAA 2019 impact the northeastern states of India?

Some northeastern states, particularly those with unique demographic compositions, fear that the CAA could lead to an influx of immigrants and alter their cultural and linguistic identity. The Act includes provisions to protect certain areas under the Inner Line Permit system and Sixth Schedule of the Constitution.

33. What is the significance of choosing Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan in the CAA 2019?

These countries were chosen because they have Islam as their state religion. The Act aims to provide protection to non-Muslim minorities who may face religious persecution in these countries.

34. How does the CAA 2019 affect the concept of citizenship by birth in India?

The CAA 2019 does not directly change citizenship by birth rules. However, it may indirectly affect these rules by potentially granting citizenship to parents who might otherwise have been considered illegal migrants, thus impacting their children's citizenship status.

35. How does the CAA 2019 affect the principle of jus soli (citizenship by birth) in India?

While the CAA 2019 does not directly change jus soli principles, it may indirectly affect them by potentially granting citizenship to parents who might otherwise have been considered illegal migrants, thus impacting their children's citizenship status under jus soli.

36. What is the process for obtaining citizenship under the CAA 2019?

While the exact process is yet to be fully clarified, eligible individuals will need to apply for citizenship. They will likely need to provide evidence of their religion, country of origin, and date of entry into India, among other requirements set by the government.

37. What are the economic implications of the CAA 2019?

The economic implications of the CAA 2019 are debated. Some argue it could lead to increased competition for jobs and resources in certain areas, while others contend that it might bring in skilled individuals who could contribute to the economy.

38. What is the relationship between the CAA 2019 and India's asylum policies?

India does not have a formal refugee policy or asylum law. The CAA 2019 provides a pathway to citizenship for certain groups but does not establish a comprehensive framework for asylum seekers or refugees from all countries.

39. Does the CAA 2019 affect existing Indian citizens?

The CAA 2019 does not directly affect existing Indian citizens, regardless of their religion. It only provides a pathway to citizenship for certain non-citizen immigrants from the specified countries.

40. How does the CAA 2019 affect refugees from other countries, such as Sri Lanka or Myanmar?

The CAA 2019 does not provide special provisions for refugees from countries other than Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Refugees from other countries must follow the standard procedures for seeking asylum or citizenship in India.

41. How does the CAA 2019 interact with existing citizenship laws in India?

The CAA 2019 amends the Citizenship Act, 1955. It creates an exception to the general rule that illegal migrants are ineligible to apply for Indian citizenship, specifically for the religious groups and countries mentioned in the Act.

42. What are the implications of the CAA 2019 for India's international relations?

The CAA 2019 has led to diplomatic tensions with some countries, particularly Bangladesh, which has expressed concerns about being implicitly labeled as a country that persecutes religious minorities. It has also drawn international criticism from human rights organizations.

43. What are the potential long-term demographic impacts of the CAA 2019?

The long-term demographic impacts are debated. Some argue it could lead to significant changes in the religious composition of certain areas, particularly in states bordering the specified countries. Others contend that the impact will be limited due to the cut-off date and other restrictions.

44. What are the potential impacts of the CAA 2019 on India's demographic diversity and multiculturalism?

The CAA 2019 has raised concerns about its potential impact on India's demographic composition and its tradition of multiculturalism. Supporters argue it protects persecuted minorities, while critics fear it may alter the country's diverse social fabric.

45. What safeguards are in place to prevent misuse of the CAA 2019?

The Act includes provisions for verification of claims and penalties for providing false information. However, critics argue that more robust safeguards are needed to prevent potential misuse or fraudulent claims of religious persecution.

46. How does the CAA 2019 impact India's obligations under international refugee law?

India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol. However, the CAA 2019 has been criticized for potentially violating customary international law principles of non-refoulement and non-discrimination in refugee protection.

47. What is the significance of the cut-off date (December 31, 2014) in the CAA 2019?

The cut-off date limits the applicability of the Act to those who entered India before December 31, 2014. This was likely chosen to prevent a potential influx of new immigrants seeking to take advantage of the Act's provisions.

48. What are the potential impacts of the CAA 2019 on India's social fabric?

Critics argue that the CAA 2019 could lead to social divisions and communal tensions by differentiating between religious groups. Supporters contend that it addresses historical injustices and protects persecuted minorities.

49. What are the potential environmental impacts of implementing the CAA 2019?

Some environmental concerns have been raised, particularly in ecologically sensitive border areas, about the potential impact of population changes resulting from the implementation of the CAA 2019. However, the actual environmental impact remains a subject of debate.

50. How does the CAA 2019 relate to India's commitments under international human rights treaties?

While India is a party to several international human rights treaties, the CAA 2019 has been criticized for potentially violating principles of non-discrimination. Supporters argue that it addresses specific humanitarian concerns within India's sovereign rights.

51. What are the potential impacts of the CAA 2019 on India's soft power and international image?

The CAA 2019 has drawn international attention and criticism, potentially affecting India's soft power and image as a pluralistic democracy. This has implications for India's diplomatic relations and global standing.

52. How does the CAA 2019 interact with India's obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)?

India is a party to the ICCPR, which prohibits discrimination. The CAA 2019 has raised questions about its compatibility with these international obligations, particularly regarding equal treatment regardless of religion.

53. What are the potential impacts of the CAA 2019 on cross-border migration patterns?

While the CAA 2019 has a cut-off date of December 31, 2014, there are concerns that it might influence future migration patterns or create expectations among certain groups in neighboring countries.

54. How does the CAA 2019 affect the interpretation of Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty) of the Indian Constitution?

The CAA 2019 has implications for the interpretation of Article 21, particularly in how it relates to the rights of non-citizens and the state's obligations towards different groups of immigrants and refugees.

55. How does the CAA 2019 relate to the concept of "constitutional morality" as discussed in Indian jurisprudence?

The concept of constitutional morality, which emphasizes adherence to constitutional principles, has been invoked in debates about the CAA 2019. Critics argue that the Act violates this principle, while supporters contend it aligns with constitutional values of protecting persecuted minorities.